The secret of great teachers

Long ago, famous teachers did not go to monthly seminars before they can teach. They did not prepare lesson plans every night or prepare visual aids and powerpoint presentations and sophisticated audiovisual materials to accompany their talk. Yet they were regarded as great and influential teachers of our time. Why, you want to ask. Were they simply lucky to be good at public speaking? I’m talking about how Confucius teach, just one of the many teachers who made their names in our history not just for their teachings but for the way they reach to their audiences. All of these teachers used instructional method so that their followers can better understand and thus follow their teachings. Confucius, in particular, used presentation (or lecture) and demonstration when he teaches. Even today, these modes of instructions are still used. Confucius believes that for his disciples and followers to understand and adopt his teachings, he must live them and be an example. Demonstration is teaching by example, and this was what Confucius did. He also gave lectures, as this was the commonly used instructional method even before. Lectures serve well in sharing information to the audience, relaying history, theories and backgrounds and experiences. A lecture reaches a large number of people at one time. Although lectures are usually a one-way mode of communication, Confucius allows his followers to ask him questions. Through this answer-and-question portion, which Jesus also used when teaching, the followers can gain more insight and feedback from the teacher. Moreover, Confucius believes that through discussion he can reach to every individual he teaches. Aside from this, he knows that each person calls for different instructional approach to learn. Due to this, he used the educational approach in leading his followers towards the good life. Confucius, Jesus and Socrates, just to name a few, saw the importance of these methods for many reasons. Socrates believed in involving his students in a dialogue to argue a point. Jesus engaged his followers in question-and-answer sessions to give and share information. They used demonstration and presentation because they are very effective, evidenced by the many people who accepted their beliefs. These people further grasped their teachings by establishing churches and religions and keeping beliefs to honor their teachers. Just the number of their followers is enough evidence to show that they have maximized the potential of the instructional method they used. As for me, I think demonstration and presentation are very effective, whether in a classroom or domestic setting. Parents lecture their children about many things so that they learn, and they live as examples to their children by living what they preach. Even at school, these methods prove useful because students learn by what they see from their teachers. A survey of the most effective methods for instruction to address academic differences was conducted among teachers. The majority thinks that small group/cooperative learning is the most effective method. Modeling (demonstration) is ranked second, and question and answer, group discussion, individual instruction and lecture are ranked third. The teachers cited reasons why they think the methods are effective. First, learners have the chance to help and learn from each other throughout. This method refers to group discussions, experiments or projects. Then, teachers provide support and provide learning in different and multiple ways. They have the opportunity to share important ideas, give feedback and remediation, and help students to be on track by reinforcing structure and organization. REFERENCE Treat, Alena R., Ying Wang, Rajat Chadha and Michael Hart Dixon. (2006). Major Development in Instructional Technology: Prior to the 20th Century.

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Reasons for people to attend college or university are enormous and depend on one's attitudes. But the three most important ones that make people choose college or university as the gate to their future are Job opportunities, increased knowledge and essential skills preparation for future life. First and foremost, I think the most important reason is that people can get a good job if they have a certificate, especially the one of famous college or university.Practically, the final purpose after a long process of study for almost people is to improve their life by getting good Job. What proves that point of view, obviously, is the act that most of certificates are used to support Job application. Second, this maybe the last chance for people to study in such an academic environment where professor teach them plenty of knowledge in may aspects; as a rule, they try their best to collect as good as possible in the subject the like.This also helps them to gain an abundant knowledge for fu ture life. Last but not least, people want to prepare a certain skills which cannot lack in the developed society namely competitive experience, group work†¦ Those skills will be efficient weapons for them to compete with others in order to get the Job they want. Beside this, people who tend to apply what they learned in college or university choose the best way to reach success.What is more, this the chance for people to live apart from their family; consequently, they can develop their independent characteristics. In a word, all people are encouraged to attend college or university. The more people attend college or university, the more develop society is. As long as background knowledge and experience decide one's Job opportunities, people who attend college or university are constructing their future by the best materials. Essa Reasons for people to attend college or university are enormous and depend on one's attitudes. But the three most important ones that make people choose college or university as the gate to their future are Job opportunities, increased knowledge and essential skills preparation for future life. First and foremost, I think the most important reason is that people can get a good job if they have a certificate, especially the one of famous college or university.Practically, the final purpose after a long process of study for almost people is to improve their life by getting good Job. What proves that point of view, obviously, is the act that most of certificates are used to support Job application. Second, this maybe the last chance for people to study in such an academic environment where professor teach them plenty of knowledge in may aspects; as a rule, they try their best to collect as good as possible in the subject the like.This also helps them to gain an abundant knowledge for fu ture life. Last but not least, people want to prepare a certain skills which cannot lack in the developed society namely competitive experience, group work†¦ Those skills will be efficient weapons for them to compete with others in order to get the Job they want. Beside this, people who tend to apply what they learned in college or university choose the best way to reach success.What is more, this the chance for people to live apart from their family; consequently, they can develop their independent characteristics. In a word, all people are encouraged to attend college or university. The more people attend college or university, the more develop society is. As long as background knowledge and experience decide one's Job opportunities, people who attend college or university are constructing their future by the best materials.

Management of Information Systems Unit 9 project Essay

Management of Information Systems Unit 9 project - Essay Example I have searched for the online computer system and printer. These are two main items those will be needed for the Eats2Go restaurant business information system handing. In this section I will present the detailed analysis of the Dell dimension 4600 Desktop computers for the Eats2Go restaurant business management system. Dell Dimension 4600 Desktop has a 2.66 GHz Pentium 4 processor, a 2 GB RAM, 320 GB hard disk and 8x DVD+RW drive. This system contains the â€Å"Creative Sound Blaster Audigy 2† Sound Card by Dell 5850 5.1 sound Speakers. There is facility Intel 10/100 Ethernet plus v.92 56Kbps Modem. The main faculty is the one FireWire and eight USB 2.0 Ports (cnet, 2009). The above given system specifications are tremendous, for the reason that we have 320GB of Hard disk space. Here we have build in RAM of 2 MB. This extensive disk space is really great for the Eats2Go restaurant information system handling. This system also has a high processing speed and better RAM support. So I will suggest this system for the Eats2Go restaurant handling and data and business control (Memoryupgrade, 2009). I have selected the printer for the Eats2Go restaurant business is HP LaserJet P1005. This printer has capacity of 1200 x 1200 dpi (dots per inch) and has the capability to print 15 pages per minute (Superwarehouse, 2009). This printer can have 150 Sheet Input Capacity. Main feature is its connection Via Hi-Speed USB (HP, 2009). Its price is $136 (Superwarehouse, 2009). For the company of Andrew Langston I have to research online for the wireless technology regarding its implementation at company. This wireless technology is aimed at enhancing the overall productivity of the business through offering a better and fast communication link among the different working departments, production areas and control rooms. I have conducted an online research and found that the fixed wireless technology is most significant for the establishment of the communication

Dialogue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Dialogue - Essay Example The conversation progresses as they debate about the attitudes rampant in the society regarding social networking sites. Goffman: The craze is not just limited to the youth. Adults are equally involved in the promulgation of this trend. Most of my colleagues at my office are often using these sites during their free time. In fact, I have seen some of them so obsessed with them that they keep them opened in the Internet browser even when they are working on office assignments. Giddens: Yes, true but what amazes me the most is their surprise when they find out that I am not a member of any social networking site. I have often found myself in heated conversations with them and to be honest comrades, this has given me some interesting insights into their perceptions about social interaction. I am incredulous at the explanations that they have to offer in defense of these sites and how they help them socialize. Bauman: I have encountered the same attitude at my workplace as well. Social networking sites are considered to be the holy grail of cyber socialization. My colleagues who do not know me well often misjudge me for being unsocial and conservative for not having a profile on these sites. Friends, this came as a surprise to me when I first heard this view but people regard these sites to be a very good way of fostering friendships with acquaintances and getting to know other people well. This has led me to believe that social networking sites have completely transformed the way people perceive friendship. Bauman: In my view, it is the concept of liquid life and liquid modernity that is the underlying cause of such an attitude shift. Liquid life and liquid modernity are intricately tied to each other. Liquid life is the life that one has in a liquid modern society. For me, a liquid modern society is one where people do not get time to develop habits. It is characteristic of conditions under which people

How can we evolve through virtual augmentation Coursework

How can we evolve through virtual augmentation - Coursework Example Michael & Washburn outlines that technology is an improvement that is made on an already existing idea. Technology has greatly improved the intellectual and physical capability of human beings and has changed their lives, as well. The evolution of mankind has also changed people's attitudes, perceptions, and even lifestyle. For instance, life during the 18th century is very different from that of the 20th and 21st century. The main reason for this is because of people's needs, taste, and preference keep changing as the result of innovations and developments. According to Michael & Washburn, Change in worldviews is also evidence that mankind keeps evolving. In the ancient period, people always understood that they had a role to play in the society and everything they did was for the community. A child belonged to the community, and it was, therefore, the responsibility of every member of the community to take care of them. However, in the current society, individualism is the way of l ife and people seek to develop themselves rather than the society as a whole. Science fiction also has a role to play in man's evolution, and most innovations and inventions are attributed to science fiction. Science fiction has brought out the creativity in mankind as it prompted them to carry out experiments to prove the scientific concepts. In the process of carrying out these experiments, many other discoveries have been made some, which have been beneficial, and some harmful to mankind.

Book The Body Silent by Robert Murphy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Book The Body Silent by Robert Murphy - Essay Example Throughout his book, he embarks on research among the disabled. The question remains is this truly participant observations Can you distinguish an emic and an etic point of view in the narrative Murphy writes both as an anthropologist and as a quadriplegic: "the kind of culture the handicapped American must face is just as much a part of the environs of his disability as his wheelchair. It hardly needs saying the disabled, individually and as a group, contravene all the values of youth, virility, activity, and physical beauty that American's cherish, however little most individuals may realize them. Most handicapped people sense that others resent them for this reason: "We are subverters of the American ideal, just as the poor are betrayers of the American dream. And to the extent that we depart from the ideal, we become ugly and repulsive to the able-bodied" (Perring 2002) Disabled persons account for seeable memories that those with "normal bodies" of society are part of the disabled suffering world, they reside in a non-existent paradise and they too can be stricken at any given time. Murphy writes: The violinist Itzhak Perlman, who suffers from the aftereffects of polio , says that when he is pushed up to an airline counter in a wheelchair, the clerk commonly asks his attendant, "Where is he going" Murphy was a professor of anthropology at Columbia University when he became progressively paralyzed by an inoperable spinal cord tumor. Throughout his book, he provides accounts of his personal experience and case studies of others in society who are dealing with disabilities everyday. "Disability is defined by society and given meaning by culture; it is a social malady" (Murphy 1987, 4). As he writes The Body Silent he is virtually quadriplegic, hitting the keys of his computer with the eraser end of a pencil held in place by a 'universal cuff' wrapped around his palm. He is still traveling to Columbia to teach his classes. Murphy applies the metaphor of an anthropological field trip to his experience: "This book was conceived in the realization that my long illness with a disease of the spinal cord has been a kind of extended anthropological field trip, for through it I have sojourned in a social world no less strange to me at first than those of the Amazon forests. And since it is the duty of all anthropologists to report on their travels . . . this is my accounting" (ix). Drawing not only on his own experience but also on research for which he received funding, Murphy instructs his audience in the metaphysics of his situation, and in the social as well as physical challenges of disability. Murphy took on his physical deterioration with eyes-open determination, a refusal to accept social limitations, and reliance on the essence of his selfhood--his mind. His account is a highly informative study of the physical negotiation of paraplegia and quadriplegia, and of attitudes and assumptions harbored toward those who are physically "other." Murphy became a pioneer for rights of the handicapped and spearheaded the initiative at Columbia to provide wheelchair access and other aids. Peter Graham (1997) classified Murphy's narrative classification of "metapathography." According to Graham, metapathographies are "not

Final paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Final paper - Essay Example hites, hence the birth of the well known quote from one of his prominent speeches: â€Å"I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.† The relation between religion and racism has been an ongoing research for a long time amongst the world’s top religious scholars. In general, my research depicts that there is a positive relation between these two contradicting topics. The outcomes of my study put forward that both the regularity of church turnout and belief salience is no longer considerably connected to racism. (b). Ingenuousness at first thought turned out not to be related to racism. However after some deep deliberations, in which important background variables such as age and education were factored in, it suggested otherwise. World religions tend to declare worldwide brotherly love yet history is beleaguered with moments in which religion has provided a good reason for all kinds of mayhem directed towards people of dissimilar race or culture. A good example of this is the holocaust. From this evidences, a significant number of historians and theology scholars argue that religion should obstinately be measured as a channel for racism. When one tries to make a synopsis of these frequent attempts, a very uneven analysis is obtained. There could be two main explanations for this. One is that there is no compromise on how to quantify religion in order to achieve consequential outcomes. Another one is that there exists two main guidelines in which one can look for a clarification of the observed relation: one can decide to employ religious factors or turn to non-religious factors .The course in which you choose to look for a clarification will affect the conclusions that are drawn up. I will start by giving a brief outline of applicable literature. This allows me to stridently differentiate the outcomes of two different studies that I

The policies of a Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The policies of a Government - Essay Example United Kingdom has seen the development of these organizations at a massive scale, with the number extending into thousands while the number of political parties remains small. The public has immensely supported the petitioning of the State to succumb to significant issues, and thus the membership of these groups has increased greatly (History Learning, 2010) The issue under consideration is an environmental factor, which has been drawing the attention of billions around the globe; it is an ecocatastrophe that everyone faces, irrespective of cast, creed, gender, status or nationality. This environmental factor is the phenomenon of Global Climate Change, which has been highlighted in political and economic debates, and Greenpeace International is one of the first pressure groups that promote this issue on a world-wide scale (IPCC, 2007). The slogan holds an energy within itself, and provokes the desire to act immediately; Greenpeace has effectively used the terminology which strikes t he emotions of the people, such as Fragile Earth and needs. It focuses on creating awareness and realization that the world is heading towards a disaster, and brings this issue on main scale, by confronting the government policies and large corporations which have led to this environmental degradation, such as forcing Timberland (a major shoe manufacturing company) to sort out their supply chain.The energy system of UK has become antique, and need up gradation to be conducive enough for contemporary times, and thus Greenpeace has proposed.

Holocaust Denial Essay Example for Free

Holocaust Denial Essay The holocaust is the term used to describe the period of persecution and extermination of European Jews by Nazi Germany. During this period, an estimated six million Jews were murdered in a series of state-sponsored killings. This was a culmination of a Nazi policy which was â€Å"the final solution to the Jewish question† (Michman, 2003) Why did Nazis Hate Jews? The Nazis hatred for Jews had been in existence for a long time, but it is after the World War 1 that it intensified. Prior to that, there had been strong feelings of anti-Semitism in Europe, mainly from the Christians. This is because of the Jews reluctance to embrace Christianity and their stubborn adherence to Judaism. (Israel G. 1990) After the First World War in which German lost, Hitler sought to find a plausible explanation for their defeat. Since at the time most banks and financial institutions were run by Jews, the Nazis blamed then for not availing enough funds for the war. They were viewed as being tight-fisted, corrupt and vile people, who could do nothing but destroy. This aroused feelings of hatred for the population, and the Nazi regime went on churning propaganda that blamed all of Germany’s problems on the Jews. (William, 1995) From another angle, the Jews were generally viewed as being an inferior race to the Aryans. Hitler believed that Aryans were the master race and even made a table of sorts which classified the races according to superiority in genes, with Aryans at the top, and Jews, Gypsies and Blacks at the bottom . The Nazis therefore saw the need to eliminate them from Europe to avoid weakening the racial purity of the Aryans (William, 1995) Holocaust Denial Holocaust denial is a term used to refer to the movement which seeks to deny that the holocaust really happened, and if it did, whether it occurred in the manner and scale that historians claim it did. It is a movement especially active in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe. However, the first people who sought to deny that the holocaust ever happened were the Nazis themselves. They attempted to destroy all evidence and even denied the proof that was presented at the Nuremberg trial. The organized version of the movement called Holocaust Revisionism was founded in 1979, by Willis Carto, founder Liberty Lobby, an anti-Semitic organization in America, when he incorporated the Institute of Historical Review. He is quoted as saying History is far too important to be left to history professors, pundits and politicians. History is power The leading activists for the IHR include Mark Weber, Bradley Smith and Fred Leuchter in the United States, Ernst Zundel in Canada, David Irving in England, Robert Faurisson in France, Carlo Mattogno in Italy and Ahmed Rami in France. However, among these, Bradley Smith, the self-styled director for the Committee for Open Debate on the Holocaust, CODOH, has been the most visible in the United States. He has placed series of ads in college newspapers since 1991 on behalf of CODOH. In one such ad, Bradley promises a $50,000 to anyone who can convince a radio station to air a ninety minute video to show that the holocaust was a hoax. The IHR also writes a journal called the Journal of Historical Review and holds annual conferences, which are used as vehicles for holocaust denial. http://www. adl. org/holocaust/introduction. asp The revisionists offer the following arguments to prove that the holocaust is a farce. First of all, they claim that there is no single document which has been identified, which expressly shows a master plan for the execution of Jews. This, according to them, is proof that the whole idea of Jewish annihilation is a creation by the Jews to gain sympathy from the world. ( http://www. remember. org/History. root. rev. html) Secondly, there were no gas chambers at Auschwitz and the other camps, so the allegations of people being gassed to death are mere lies. There are no documents about gas chambers of any kind anywhere so no mass murder of Jews in gas chambers took place. (http://www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/jsource/Holocaust/denial. html) Another reason why they deny the holocaust is because they purport that the scholars rely on the subjective testimonies of alleged â€Å"survivors†. These testimonies are highly biased and because there is no supporting documentation proving the genocide, these accounts can only be taken to be false. (Raul, 1985) The revisionists also claim that there was no net loss in the Jewish population in Europe between 1941 and 1945; therefore the claim that 6million Jews were killed cannot be true. According to them, there were not even enough Jews in Europe to account for the 6million victims. ( http://www. remember. org/History. root. rev. html) Furthermore, according to the revisionists, the Nuremberg trials were stage managed in favor of the Jews. They were a sham and were just held so that Jews could benefit from the sympathy they aroused. To further strengthen their arguments, the holocaust deniers have posed a series of questions that put in doubt the truth about the events that took place during the holocaust. To start with, they ask; it is said that the gas chambers were ventilated, and if so, wouldn’t the gas have killed the people outside as well. Since this didn’t happen, then surely, there was no such thing as Zyklon-B used to gas people to death. The next question is, if as many as 6million people were killed and cremated, then where did all the ash go to. It should be so much going by the numbers, and going by what is available now, the numbers must grossly be exaggerated. ( http://www. remember. org/History. root. rev. html) Moreover, Zyklon-B, which was allegedly used had to be dropped into the chambers by people, so, the people would have died from the gas themselves, wouldn’t they? In addition, how come the eyewitnesses to the gassings survived, why didn’t the Nazis eliminate them since they knew so much. That is not all; there was a swimming pool at Auschwitz, this means that the people there lived in luxury, so this could nit have been an extermination camp. Also, the death lists from there do not show that any person was gassed, and the number of people who died there was very small. Finally, since much of the area around Auschwitz has a high water table, then the said burning of the bodies in ditches could not be possible. (http://www. remember. org/History. root. rev. html) Some of the revisionists also pose counter-statements against the evidence given by the survivors. In regard to the deaths in Treblinka, the victims were said to have been killed using diesel fumes; so the revisionists say that fumes from a diesel engine are not enough to kill a person. This implies that the people could not have died as a result of inhaling the fumes. The doors of the gas chambers which used the engine exhausts would not withstand the pressure of the gas accumulating inside, which would lead to an explosion; how come that did not happen? ( http://www. remember. org/History. root. rev. html) In one of the most controversial denials, the revisionists assert that the Anne Frank diary was a fabrication written by someone else who wanted to further the Jews agenda. Did the Holocaust really happen? For every claim made by the revisionists, evidence has been produced to prove that the genocide actually happened. The Nazi regime itself had documents that clearly pointed out to their intention to massacre the Jews. Although they destroyed much of the documents, some remnants were later recovered. (Lucy, 1975)The evidence available includes written documents in terms of letters, memos, blueprints, orders, bills, speeches, articles, memoirs and confessions. There are accounts given by eyewitnesses, who include survivors, Jewish Sonderkommandoes, SS guards, commandants, local townspeople and some of the Nazis. (Michael et. Al, 1997) Indisputable evidence can also be gleaned from photographs taken by the military, press, civilians and survivors. Some of the camps where the mass murders took place still exist, some in almost original state. Inferential evidence is also available in form of population demographics which confirms the change in Jewish population. Therefore, it can be concluded that the evidence of the holocaust is so compelling that we cannot deny that it took place. (Michael et. al, 1997) REFERENCES http://www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/jsource/Holocaust/denial. html http://www. adl. org/holocaust/introduction. asp http://www. remember. org/History. root. rev. html Israel G. (1990), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Volume 2, New York Lucy D. (1975) The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945, New York Michman, D (2003). Holocaust Historiography: A Jewish Perspective: Conceptualizations, Terminology, Approaches, and Fundamental Issues. London Michael S. and Alex G, (1997) Denying History Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why do they Say it? † University of California Press Raul H. (1985) The Destruction of the European Jews (Student Edition), New York William L. P (1995) Novelist of Hate, ADL Research Report. Brugioni, D. A. , Robert G. P. (1979) The Holocaust Revisited: A Retrospective Analysis of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Extermination Complex. (Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, D. C. )

Reflection of the Thought Police vs. Outer Party Game Essay Example for Free

Reflection of the Thought Police vs. Outer Party Game Essay During the Thought Police vs. Outer Party game, I learned the importance of the value of independence and freedom. Previous to playing the game, I would consistently wear whatever I wanted, I would carry my books whatever way I wanted to, and I was allowed to live my own life. But the game gave me a new perspective, not only on Winston and his hardships, but on my peers. While engaged in the game, due to the secrecy developed within the tension of ignorance, I felt paranoid and oppressed. Because nobody knew what role everybody in the class played, there were underlying tensions that lead to distrust. Personally, I could not trust anybody, not even my closest friends in the class. I felt like I was always being watched. Being worried about whether getting caught justified the uncomfortable feeling I had. Then I realized that this was Winston’s life always being watched while unwillingly obeying the rules of the party. The situation was bad, having my classmates betray each other, which taught me that there is no place safe for individualistic freedom. The first day we started the Thought Police versus Outer Party game, I was very conscious of myself and my surroundings. All day and every day, I would keep a mental checklist of the rules that I had to follow. Doing this taught me the theme of what I wanted to do versus what I needed to do. For example, one of my peers, who is not associated with AP Language, asked me why I was wearing a yellow leaf. I had to lie to her and say Oh Im just taking risks, as far as style goes. I felt stupid for saying that! I really wanted to tell her what is going on. If I was allowed to tell her, she could have possibly helped me find out who the thought police was. Speaking of having to wear my yellow-leaf necklace, the third day into the Thought Police versus Outer Party game, I overslept. Once I woke up, I put sweatpants on and ran out the front door to the bus. I didnt even realize how I looked that morning. When I got to school, I realized I was lacking my yellow-leaf necklace. I felt ultimately hopeless. I was sad, but not to the point of crying. It wasnt like I was going to be vaporized or anything. Afterwards, I went in Big Brothers classroom and saw an unpunched yellow leaf, an electronic hole puncher, scissors, and a white piece of string. I had an insane adrenaline rush. I grabbed everything and went to Coach Johnsons room quickly so no one would see me. However, I had a feeling that Big Brother saw me on the way out the door. Two minutes later, I came back into the classroom feeling accomplished as if nothing had happened. The next day, I saw that my name was on the offenders list. Guess what crime I had committed? The Yellow-Ribbon crime! All of a sudden, I did not feel accomplished after all. At least I know who reported me. That same day, I also forgot to wear anything orange. I can only imagine how Winston would have felt if he forgot to wear his uniform. Luckily, before I went to Big Brothers classroom, I stopped by Mrs. Hoods room. I saw Michaela Bailey, a member of the Outer Party. I felt so fearful because for all I know, he could have been a thought police (luckily, he was not). I took an enormous risk and asked Do you have anything orange I could wear? He answered Sure, you can wear this. He handed me an object that looked like a ripped sock that soccer players wear on their shins. I responded Thank you so much! . It is amazing how paranoid I was being, because on any other day, I would have been like Oh, no thanks. You keep it . This proves the importance of having to unwillingly obey the party. The next day, Big Brother posted the crimes and who had offended them. My name was on the list for offending Crime Number 5. This rule states: When speaking to lunch ladies, janitors, office staff, or any non-teaching adult, students must express gratitude for their service by greeting them with the phrase, We appreciate your work on behalf of our education. . I did not even know I broke this rule. I do not remember seeing a lunch lady, janitor, office member, or a non-teaching adult. That wasnt the only strange event that had occurred. All of the other Outer Party members names were listed as well. That made it even harder to guess who the Thought Police were. However, with this taking place, made me think smarter. The reason for that is because I knew that either Big Brother turned us in, or a member of the thought police turned their self in. Now that I think about it, it did not really help me at all. The day that the Thought Police versus Outer Party game was coming to a close, I was absent from school. Because of this, I was not able to guess who the thought police were. The good thing about it was that when I finally found out who the Though Police were, I realized that if I were not absent, I still would not have had decreased the size of my reflection essay.

Responsibilities Under the Health and Safety at Work Act

Responsibilities Under the Health and Safety at Work Act STUDENT NAME: IP OGOLO INTRODUCTION The purpose of this assignment is to compare and contrast the responsibilities imposed by the duties under sections 2,3,4,7 and 8 of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. This would be achieved by critically analysing different case law, the Health and Safety at Work Act and other relevant literature. In this assignment, the interpretation of various words and phrases in the above mentioned sections of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 would be looked at and the elements of convictions would also be analysed. OVERVIEW OF SECTIONS 2,3 AND 4 SECTION 2 OF THE HASAWA 1974 Section 2 of the Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAWA) 1974, imposes duties on the employer towards his employees. Section 2(1), states that it shall be the duty of every employer to ensure so far as is reasonably practicable the health, safety and welfare at work of all its employees. The words health, safety and welfare are not clearly defined (Moore and Selwyn 2015) in the HASAWA 1974 but health includes both mental and physical health. Safety refers to the absence of foreseeable injury while welfare refers to water, lighting, toilet facilities, cloakroom, canteen etc. This duty is imposed on every employer irrespective of the size of the business or organisation, to ensure that such workplace is safe provided it is reasonably practicable for such employer to make it safe. The duties imposed by the HASAWA 1974 do not exempt employers of small businesses and the only defence from employers would be reasonable practicability. For example, an off-license shop employer who only has two part-time employees must also comply with the duties of the employer to ensure the health, safety and welfare of its part-time employees. Section 2(1) also included welfare unlike other sections of the HASAWA 1974 which only focus on health and safety. This means that employers have a duty to provide welfare facilities such as toilets, change room, eating area, adequate ventilation, adequate lighting, etc. The only defence for small business employers or any other employer who is non-compliant with these duties is the reasonably practicability of such health and safety measures. Reasonably practicability is one of those issues of debate. Reasonable practicable depends on a number of factors which are used to test if it was reasonably practicable for the workplace to be safe or not. These factors are weighed on a scale which measures the risks versus the sacrifices which the employer has to make in order to comply with the duties. These sacrifices could be ( Matthews and Ageros 2016) time, money, man-power or the effort/knowledge available to eliminate or mitigate those health and safety risks. An example of a case law where so far as is reasonably practicable played a significant role in the judgement is in Edwards v National Coal Board [1949] 1 ALL ER 743, where a timberman who worked in a coalmine was killed by the collapse of the side walls of the road in the course of his work. The National Coal Board was taken to court and they argued that it was not reasonably practicable for them to have prevented the accident. They contended that it was not possible for them to predict where and when a collapse would occur, and the cost; labour and effort in propping and lining all their mines outweigh the risk. Reasonably practicability ( Moore and Selwyn 2015) varies in each prosecution and it is a question of fact and evidence; this depends on the employer having sufficient evidence to show that everything reasonably practicable was done to make the workplace safe . Therefore, what might be reasonably practicable for company A may not necessarily be reasonably practicable for company B Figure 1 (Reasonably practicable)    Subsection 2(2) of the HASAWA 1974 states that it is the duty of the employer to ensure that plants are well maintained and safe systems of work are available so far as is reasonably practicable. Safe systems of work (Moore and Selwyn 2015) for plants can only be provided by an employer if the plant is located in a place where the employer has control over it and can give clear directions and procedures on how it should be used. Plants should be regularly maintained and efficient at all times in order to comply with the duties under subsection 2(2)(a). The maintenance (Moore and Selwyn 2015) of plants is a matter of foresight. The employer could have planned routine checks by competent persons or monitoring program in place to meet the requirements of this section. In section 2(2) the employer also has a duty to provide information, training, instruction and supervision to its employees. The information (Moore and Selwyn 2015) which is provided must be accurate and meaningful and also extends to contractors where necessary to ensure safety. In most cases, employers use induction training as one of the ways to provide information to its employees. Some employers use toolbox talks and organised in-house training as means of conveying health and safety related information to their employees. Any employer who does not provide adequate supervision to its employees would be in breach of this section. Section 2 (3)-(7) imposes duties on the employer to provide and revise health and safety policy and also have safety representatives and safety committees depending on the size of the organisation. An example of a prosecution under section 2(3) is Osborne v Bill Taylor of Huyton Ltd [1982] ICR 168. This breach was (Barret and Howells 1995) a failure to prepare an adequate written health and safety policy. The company carried out betting business in thirty-one separate betting shops connected by a central accounting system, management training program etc. The judges decision in this case was that the company was not in breach of section 2(3) because it had less than five employees for the time being. In my opinion, I would disagree with the Judges decision because the fact that the betting shops are centrally controlled means that it is one single undertaking, taking place in several locations and the total number of employees should be about ninety-three (93), see below for details; ÃÆ'- = 93 employees Figure 2 And therefore, should have been found guilty for a breach of section 2(3) because more than five employees were conducting a single undertaking in various locations. 2.2. SECTION 3 OF THE HASAWA 1974 Section 3 of the HASAWA 1974 covers the general duties of employers and self-employed to the public/ other people not employed by them. It states that it is the duty of every employer to conduct its undertaking in such a way to ensure so far as is reasonably practicable that persons not in his employment are not exposed to health and safety risks. (The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act, 1974) Lays emphasis in subsection 3(3) that the employer and self employed persons must give information about the hazards and risks associated with the conduct of its undertaking to those who may be affected by the conduct of his undertaking in a prescribed manner. This basically means that in some cases, it would be necessary for the employer or self employed persons to provide information which could be in the form of mailed newsletters, letter or formal visits to those who may be affected by the conduct of their undertaking to provide the necessary information about the areas in which these people may be affected and ways to reduce exposure for the benefit of their health and safety. For example, before a construction project commences, the neighbouring community needs to be aware of the health and safety risks such as noise, moving plants and heavy duty vehicles, etc in order for both parties to agree on ways to reduce their exposure. In section 3, the phrase reasonably practicable has been used which means that the employer or self employed persons need to weigh the risks versus the cost to determine if it is reasonably practicable for these safety measures to be in place. Additionally, this section refers to the word prescribed which to my understanding means a specified manner in which the information has to be presented to those who may be affected by the conduct of the employers or self-employed persons undertaking. One of the most common prescribed ways in which such information may be conveyed is through induction training for visitors. In this section, the word risk has been used which means (Moore and Selwyn 2015) the possibility of danger and not actual danger. The HASAWA 1974 does not state that an employer needs to wait for an accident to occur before measures and procedures would be in place. It states that provided there is a possibility of danger or injury, then it is the duty of the employer to either eliminate or mitigate such hazards. Another important word used in section 3 is undertaking which means (Moore and Selwyn 2015) business, work activities, enterprise etc. For instance, if company A gives a contract to company B (Brick-layer) who lays bricks in company As site, then the layering of bricks forms part of company As undertaking. However, the question of how much control the employer has (Moore and Selwyn 2015) over the operation as part of his undertaking could make it difficult in any criminal conviction. For example, if Company B decides to lay the bricks outside company As construction site, then company A may not have much control over how the bricklayers decide to lay those bricks with regards to health and safety. Some case law examples referring to undertaking are R v Swan hunter Shipbuilders Ltd [1981] ICR 831 and R v Mara [1986] IRLR 154, which would be discussed later in the assignment. It is important to note that an employer (Moore and Selwyn 2015) may still be conducting his undertaking even though the business is closed. For example, a food factory may be closed but the cleaning and maintenance of machinery may still be taking place which would still form part of the employers undertaking. 2.3.  SECTION 4 This section states the general duties of persons concerned with premises to persons other than their employees. It imposes duties on people such as landlords, security officers, estate agents etc. who have (Moore and Selwyn 2015) control over non-domestic premises or the means of access (such as doors, stairs, lift etc) or exit or any plant or substances which are used by non-employees as a place of work, to ensure that such areas or plants are safe so far as is reasonably practicable. It is important to note that residential premises are clearly domestic premises except the communal areas such as lifts, stairs, main door etc. which could be used as access for persons such as handyman, repairers, plumber, electricians, etc. as a place of work. The phrase reasonably practicable has also been used in this section of the Act. When a person makes (Moore and Selwyn 2015) available premises for the use of others, the reasonableness of the measures taken to ensure safety must be determined in the light of the controllers knowledge of the anticipated use of those premises and his knowledge of the actual use. For example, if a Landlord rents out offices to businesses, the landlord needs to know the scope of these businesses in order to put certain safety measures in place. This means that the reasonableness of such safety measures (Moore and Selwyn 2015) would be weighed against the controllers knowledge, the finances and effort it would take for such hazard to be eliminated or mitigated. For instance, an uneducated landlord who owns business premises may have the finances but may not have the knowledge or effort in ensuring that such premises is safe however evidence is needed to this defence of reasonably practicability. It is important to note that the duties (Moore and Selwyn 2015) under section 4 are not limited to persons who are at work. Section 4(1)(a) states that these duties are in relation to non-employees, which would protect the general public including children. For example, a person who controls childrens play centres, libraries, schools etc would still have a duty to ensure that such premises are safe and without risks to those who may be affected by the conduct of their undertaking. A case law example under a breach of section 4 is Mailer v Austin Rover Group Plc [1989] 2 ALL ER 1087, where an employee of a contractor was killed while working for Austin Rover. Austin Rover was charged for a breach of section 4 because it had total control of the premises and could have taken measures to prevent such fatality. Another example of a prosecution under section 4 is the case of Westminster City Council versus Select Management Ltd [1984] 1 ALL ER 994. This company managed blocks of flats in London and had control of the common areas such as lifts, staircase, and landings etc and failed to ensure that the lifts and electrical installations were safe and without risk to health and safety. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SECTIONS 2, 3 AND 4 2.4.1 Sections 2 and 3 refer to the duties of the employer either towards their employees or non-employees. The employer has an obligation to ensure that the workplace is safe. Non-employers would be exempted from the duties under sections 2 and 3. Additionally, sections 2 and 3 create criminal offences for the employer if not complied with (R v Tangerine confectionery Ltd [2011] EWCA Crim 2015). A case law example is R versus Swan Hunter Shipbuilders [1981] ICR 831, where these companies were charged for breaching sections 2 and 3 of the HASAWA 1974. On the 25th of September 1976, a welder (an employee of Telemeter) went into a small compartment in the deck where a fire started the moment he started welding. The question that was raised (Barrett and Howells 1995) was whether the duties imposed on Swan hunter under sections 2 and 3 include to provide the employees of sub-contractors with information about the dangers of oxygen enriched atmosphere and secondly with instructions to ensure that safety of the workers on board, including the employees of Swan hunters and Telemeter. Figure 3 From the above diagram the relationship between Swan hunter and Telemeters is wide and the jury made emphasis that the duties under section 2 and 3 are wide enough to cover providing information and instruction to contractors and subcontractors as well. The precedent that was established in the above case law is the meaning of the phrase conduct of its undertaking in relation to the duties imposed on the employer in section 3 of the HASAWA 1974. With regards to undertaking, the welding job done by Telemeter was part of Swan hunters undertaking and therefore, failed to ensure the health and safety of persons not in its employment. Furthermore, section 2 is concerned with ensuring safety and section 3 is concerned with ensuring an absence of safety (Matthews and Ageros 2016) which mean the same thing. The level of safety in the workplace would be determined by what is reasonably foreseeable by the employer. Reasonably foreseeability is an important element in managing risks in the workplace. An example of a case law where foreseeability of risks played an important role in the judgement is R versus Tangerine Confectionery Ltd [2011] EWCA Crim 2015. In this case, the defendant was charged in breach of section 2 of HASAWA 1974 because an operator of machinery was crushed to death by a WD machine used in manufacturing sweets. The judge in R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd [2011] EWCA Crim 2015 stated, Safety must be judged by what might be reasonably foreseen by a reasonable and prudent employer. The defendant stated that the accident was not foreseeable. The foreseeability of risk (R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd [2011] EWCA Crim 2015) is only reasonably practicable if a reasonable person can foresee a material risk which is created by a plant, machinery or work-related activity. In this case, the foreseeability of an injury occurring with the use of the WD machine was obvious. However, the jury had no evidence that (R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd [2011] EWCA Crim 2015) the foreseeability of the risks of this machine caused the accident because the machine had been used for thousands of hours without any accidents. Irrespective of the lack of evidence on foreseeability, the jury concluded that there was a foreseeable possibility that someone might get entangled in the arms of this machine (R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd [2011 ] EWCA Crim 2015). The precedent that was established in the above case is the meaning of foreseeable risk. The risk has to be a material risk which a reasonable person can foresee to be a source of danger. Foreseeability of risks is relevant to the question whether a material risk to safety exists. That is why a risk assessment is an exercise in foresight. Sections 2 and 3 impose a duty on employers to ensure an absence of safety (R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd [2011] EWCA Crim 2015) which makes them think deliberately about risks which are both obvious and not obvious. If an employer does not have the knowledge to enable him/her foresee risks, then it is his/her responsibility to employ a competent person such as a health and safety advisor to assist him in conducting an adequate risk assessment. Another example of a prosecution where foreseeability influenced the judgement is Regina v Pyranha Mouldings Ltd [2014] EWCA Crim 533. Pyranha Mouldings Ltd was prosecuted for a breach of section 2(1) of the HASAWA 1974 due to an incident which occurred on the 2nd of March 2011. This company manufactured plastic Kayaks and canoes which were shipped in shipping containers. On this particular day, the loader/ banksman Mark Malcom was crushed against the roof of container because the forklift driver could not see him. This company was prosecuted because the unsafe system of work had existed for over eighteen years without any risk assessment and lack of supervision of work. The jury stated that (R v Pyranha Mouldings Ltd [2014] EWCA Crim 533) the risk of serious injury or death was substantial and foreseeable but the company did nothing about it. The foreseeability in this case played an important role in the judgement and the elements of conviction for a breach of section 2(1) are that Pyranha mouldings was the employer of Mr Malcom (the injured worker) and the employer also failed to ensure the health, safety and welfare of Mr Malcom and other employees including the forklift driver Mr Kevin. The burden of proof rests on Pyranha Mouldings to show the Jury that it took all reasonably practicable steps to keep the workplace safe, which it failed to do therefore was guilty of the offence under section 2(1) of the HASAWA 1974 . Another similarity between sections 2 and 3 is that the duties (Matthews and Ageros 2016) imposed are personal and cannot be delegated. The employer and self-employed have full responsibility to ensure health and safety and have no defence that the duties were delegated to a member of staff who failed to ensure compliance. The difference between sections 2 and 3 (R v Tangerine Confectionery [2011] EWCA Crim 2015) is on the person to whom the obligation is owed. Section 2 creates an obligation towards employees while section 3 is towards non-employees or the general public who may be affected by that employers undertaking/ job activities. An example of a case law is Veola ES v The Queen [2011] EWCA Crim 2015), a refuse collection company that was sentenced for a breach of sections 2 and 3 of the HASAWA 1974. In this case, an employee Mr Griffiths was killed on a fast dual carriage way while collecting litter. The defendant argued that the accident had nothing to do with the operation of the defendants undertaking. The appeal was dismissed because the court did not have to prove causation of the accident. Causation of the accident (R v Tangerine Confectionery [2011] EWCA Crim 2015) was a matter of evidence but not an essential ingredient of the offence. An accident is enough evidence that a material risk existed and his employees health, safety and welfare were not ensured. Under sections 3 of the HASAWA 1974, it was the conduct of the defendants undertaking of litter collection which exposed the defendants non-employees to the accident (R v Tangerine Confectionery [2011] EWCA Crim 2015). Another similarity between sections 2, 3 and 4 is that the phrase so far as is reasonably practicable is being used, which means that these duties are not absolute. This phrase gives those obliged to fulfil their duties the freedom to weigh the risks versus the cost, in order to ensure that the workplace or premises is safe. What is reasonably practicable depends (R v Tangerine Confectionery [2011] EWCA Crim 2015) on degree of foreseeable risk of injury, the gravity of the injury if it occurs and the implications of the measures/ methods in avoiding it. An offence is committed under section 2 if the defendant cannot prove that all reasonably practicable steps have been taken to ensure that its employees are safe in the workplace. While under section 3, an offence is committed if there is a material risk to the health and safety of non-employees (R v Tangerine Confectionery [2011] EWCA Crim 2015) who may be affected by the employers undertaking and the defendant has not taken such steps as are reasonably practicable to avoid those risks. Under section 4, an offence is committed if the person in control of premises so far as is reasonably practicable has not ensured that such premises is safe and without risks to the health and safety of those who might be affected. Another similarity between sections 2 and 3 is that they both refer to the phrase in such cases as may be prescribed and in a prescribed circumstance and prescribed manner which gives an indication that the responsible person based on the situation would fulfil these duties in a particular way. Section 3 and 4 refer to the word undertaking. In section 3 the employer needs to ensure the health and safety of non-employees who may be affected by any risks arising from his work activities. Subsections 4(4) refers to the controllers business activities or undertaking which means that any work activity connected with such controller of premises need to be done in a safe manner. Sections 2(2)(d) and 4 have similarities, in that they both refer to the provision of safe access and exit from work premises, provided it is reasonably practicable to do it. These sections also refer to the extent of control which the employer or controller of such premises has. For example in the Swan Hunter Shipbuilders [1981 ICR 831] case, the issue of control was also raised. Another case example (Barret and Howells 1995) is that of Westminster City Council v Select Management Ltd [1985], where the appellant was in breach of section 4 of the HASAWA 1974 because it failed to ensure that the communal areas of a block of flats were safe. Subsection 2(2)(a) imposes duties on the employer to ensure that plants are safe and without risks to (Barret and Howells 1995) employees, which is similar to those duties under sections 4(2). ELEMENTS OF AN OFFENCE OF BREACHING THE DUTIES UNDER SECTION 2 In order for the jury to convict an employer for a breach of sections 2(1) the following elements would need to be proven; (Matthews and Ageros 2016) That the defendant was at the material time an employer That the defendant failed to ensure the health, safety and welfare of its employees at work. A failure to ensure health and safety occurs when there is an exposure to a material risk to health and safety. The employee (Matthews and Ageros 2016) has to be at work for this to be applicable. This means that when the business is shut or closed for the day and there is no one at work then it is not applicable because no employees are exposed (Matthews and Ageros 2016). The employer would be guilty of a breach of section 2(1) unless it can prove that it was not reasonably practicable to minimise or eliminate the risk to the health, safety and welfare of its employees. Satisfying the test of reasonably practicability (Barret and Howells 1995) involves placing the risk on one scale and the sacrifices involved in taking the necessary measures for eliminating or mitigating the risk ( time, money, effort etc) being placed on the other scale. ELEMENTS OF AN OFFENCE OF BREACHING THE DUTIES UNDER SECTION 3 In order for an employer to be convicted for a breach of section 3(1) the burden of proof rests on the prosecutor to show the following; (Barret and Howells 1995) That the defendant at the material time was an employer That the defendant failed to conduct its undertaking in such a way as to ensure (Barret and Howells 1995) that persons not employed by the defendant who might be affected thereby were not exposed to material risks to their health and safety. AREAS OF CONTROVERSIES AND DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS OF THE DUTIES Some words and phrases relating to the duties under sections 2, 3 and 4 have been interpreted differently by different judges and have also created controversies in the court of law. Firstly, the HASAWA 1974 does not directly define the word employer but defines an employee to be someone who works under a contract of employment. Thus, an employer is a person who employs an employee. Therefore, if a person has no employees he/she is not an employer and does not owe a duty under section 3(1) but could be prosecuted under section 3(2) as a self-employed person. The fact that the act does not clearly define the word employer creates ambiguity in the court where someone may be regarded as an employer but no written contract of employment exists between such employer and the employee. This also creates another issue between the contract of employment and contract of service. For example, a small business may have a contract of service with a self-employed cleaner to clean their premises on a daily basis, but there is no contract of employment between them. Would the jury regard such a cleaner as an employee or a contractor? And would the employer still owe a duty under section 2? These questions could only be answered based on the situation and evidence. Moreover, there are companies which employ nobody under a written contract of service but engage a significant number of self-employed workers. In this case, a prosecution of such a company may be undertaken for a breach of sections 2(1) or sections 3(1) with the company alleged to be an employer (Matthews and Ageros 2016) through the extent of its control over those performing the work .For example, R versus Swan Hunter shipbuilder [1981] ICR 831 case. Another area of controversy under these duties is with the phrase exposed to risks to health and safety. It is important to note that an exposure to health and safety risks (Matthews and Ageros 2016) occurs where there is a possibility of danger and this does not require the danger to have occurred or any dangerous occurrence to have come to pass. In some prosecutions, the prosecutors argued that an accident or injury is sufficient evidence to prove that a material risk exists in the workplace. An example of a prosecution relating to this phrase (Barret and Howells 1995) is the case of R v Board of Trustees of the Science Museum[1993] 3 All ER 853 ,where the museum was in breach of section 3(1) because two of its cooling towers could possibly be containing legionella Pneumophila bacteria. The prosecutor stated (Barret and Howells 1995) that they did not have to prove that the members of the public actually inhaled the bacteria and that the word risk means the possibility of danger and not necessarily actual danger. Even where an injury has occurred, it may not be enough for the prosecutor to simply claim that the injury demonstrates that there was a risk. Where a prosecution is brought under section 3(1), it may be necessary to identify and prove the respects (Matthews and Ageros 2016) in which the injured person was liable to be affected by the way the defendant conducted its undertaking. Furthermore, could an employer be prosecuted under section 2 when no employee is at work? This is an area where prosecutors have debated over. For example, Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council versus Malrod Insulations Ltd [1993] ICR 358, where the prosecutor appealed on allegations made against an asbestos removal company called Malrod Insulations Ltd. This company was contracted to strip asbestos insulation from the premises of Ingesoll Rand Ltd. On the 21st of November 1989, the premises were inspected by the environmental health services of Bolton metropolitan Borough council. During this inspection, there were no employees at work and it was evident that the asbestos decontamination plant had electrical defects. The prosecutor took (Barret and Howells 1995) this case to court but at the end of the case, the recorder upheld a submission that there was no case to answer because in order for Malrod Insulations Ltd to be found guilty of the offence under section 2 of the HASAWA 1974, its employees had to be at work. The appellant argued (Barret and Howells 1995) that it is not the fact of men being at work while in the course of employment which creates the offence, but the HASAWA 1974 must protect the employees who would come to work the next day. In the above case, the interpretation of the employers duties seems ambiguous. In my opinion, section 2(1) states that the employer should ensure the health, safety and welfare of its employees at work and then section 2(2) lays down examples of how these duties can be carried out. However, (Moore and Selwyn 2015) it begins with the sentence without prejudice to the generality of the duties under the preceding subsection. Subsection 2(2)(a) states that the provision of safe plants is a requirement irrespective of whether or not employees are at work. Referring to the above case, the fact that such unsafe asbestos decontamination plant is within the place of work increases its likelihood of been used when workers resume work the following day. The employer could argue that such unsafe plants would undergo repairs before anyone is permitted to use the

Revolution in Cosmology Resolves Dispute over Universes Age Essay

Revolution in Cosmology Resolves Dispute over Universe's Age Just under seven years ago, astronomers using the Hubble space telescope presented results they hoped would help answer one of the most contentious issues in astronomy of the 20th century – the question of the distance scale of the universe. But there was some unease when the result was announced. According to the report, other galaxies were close enough that, extrapolating backwards from their current rate of recession and making adjustments for the influence of gravity, they all would have been together (that is, the Big Bang would have occurred) as recently as 8 billion years ago. Unfortunately, there was strong evidence already in place that some stars were at least 12-15 billion years old – apparently predating the origin of the universe itself! While these two highly irreconcilable values for the universe's age certainly posed a serious challenge to astronomers, most simply assumed that better measurements would place the distance scale back in line with the older age. What no one expected is that resolution to this problem would lie not in corrected measurements but a revolution in cosmology, and the apparent discovery of what amounts to a mysterious new essence of the cosmos – a "fifth element" that hides in vacuum and drives the expansion of the universe. The scientific study of the age and origin of the universe is intimately linked with the measurements of extragalactic distance, and consequently the science did not even exist until measurement techniques accurate to such scales were invented. Distance measurement has always been difficult for astronomers – until the 1800s, no one knew even the distance to the nearest star (other than the Sun), and th... ...pressure and a whole host of other strange properties that gravitationally repel all surrounding space, expanding the universe in absence of any physical substance. Furthermore, by expanding the universe, more empty space is created, creating even more antigravitational force and making the universe expand ever faster, leading to a runaway expansion that will eventually culminate in the dilution of all remaining matter into nothingness. And in this lies the solution to the long-standing age issue. If the universe's expansion is constantly getting faster, it must have been slower in the past, pushing the age of the universe upward to around 13 billion years, right in line with the ages of stars. So without any major revision to the distance to nearby galaxies or the ages of stars, the question of the true age of the universe has been solved in a way no one expected.

Exploring Subjectivity in Teaching Philosophy :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

Exploring Subjectivity in Teaching Philosophy ABSTRACT: In the teaching of philosophy, we need to be connect with everyday life. Students in introductory courses can be more motivated when philosophical problems have personal significance. Take the topic of 'selfhood.' Introductory textbooks generally begin with the oracle at Delphi: "Know thyself!" But this motto is usually treated as the search for general knowledge of the individual or of human nature. Is it possible for a student to acquire some knowledge about him or herself during this course and reflect on it in a philosophically relevant way? Can personal experience help in understanding philosophical concepts such as this one? These are the questions which I address. Since I think that philosophers have yet to develop didactical tools for these purposes, I will present techniques derived from Gestalt therapy which can be useful for the teaching of philosophy. The aim is not change but experience itself, with awareness serving as the basis for philosophical analysis. The characteristics of this experience-based pedagogy are: (1) three dimensional inquiry: questioning basic concepts or assumptions and opening new questions, both based on personal experience; (2) experiential work involving a problem, a theory, and an example; and (3) mutual influence between theory and experience, i.e., an interrelationship between the personal and the 'educational' gestalt. "Know Thyself!" This oracle at Delphi which was Socrates' motto inspires many philosophers but also psychologists and even psychotherapists. Each of them has good reasons for insisting that this is his domain. Several questions could be raised: Was Socrates a philosopher or a 'psychologist'? What kind of knowledge is this self-knowledge? How do these domains differ and do they have something in common? How are they related to spirituality? And many others. My interest, however, is more narrow. Although we can suppose there is an overlap between philosophy, psychology and psychotherapy, in this paper I will focus on the overlap between teaching philosophy and psychotherapy. More precisely: how can Gestalt principles and techniques help in the teaching of the topic of selfhood. I will outline some theoretical background of the importance of Gestalt in relation to didactics of philosophy and describe some possible applications. When I ask whether Socrates was a philosopher or a psychologist, this is also a question about what kind of knowledge is involved. Do I really want to know myself or do I just search for general knowledge about human nature?